1. A recent study shows how sea urchin development is affected by ocean acidification. (more…)

2. The Great Barrier Reef is experiencing massive coral bleaching events due to ocean acidification, which negatively affects the development of brightly-colored fish in the reef. (more…)

Background Information: What is Ocean Acidification?

Full Research: Direct and latent effects of ocean acidification on the transition of a sea urchin from planktonic larva to benthic juvenile, Are fish communities on coral reefs becoming less colorful? 

Study Shows How Ocean Acidification Affects Sea Urchin Early Stage Development

Ocean acidification has a significant negative impact on marine species and ecosystems. A recent study shows how ocean acidification affects the early development stages of some marine species, such as sea urchins. Here’s what you need to know about it.

The study researched the effects of pH on sea urchin’s development and transition from fertilization to juveniles. The result shows that low pH levels significantly affected the growth and mortality of the urchin’s larval stage. Even small changes in ocean pH (on the scale of .1) can have major impacts.

Larval Stage: Effects of Ocean Acidification

• Sea urchin larvae were exposed to a 7.2 pH level (compared to the current ocean’s actual pH of 8.1). The sea urchins exposed to this pH exhibited the following characteristics: 
  • Higher mortality rates.
  • Higher abnormality rates. 
  • Lower growth rates.

• The metabolism of sea urchin larvae exposed to a 7.2 pH level increased as well. The researchers believe that because of this, the urchins may be using additional energy to boost metabolic function, which might limit their growth rates. In other words, the sea urchins adapt to ocean acidification by shifting their energy to boost metabolic function, rather than other important functionalities. Researchers believe that this shift in energy may be what’s causing mortality and abnormalities throughout their development stages.

Settlement Stage

• Researchers discovered that prolonged exposure to a 7.7 pH level significantly delayed the settlement of sea urchin larvae, an important process during which larvae settle to the ocean floor where they will eventually begin their adult life stages. 
• However, when the sea urchin larvae were placed under a suitable algal substrate for the settlement stage, the researchers found that the larvae remained unaffected by 7.7 pH levels. This shows that algae may help reduce the effects of ocean acidification on sea urchin larvae.

Metamorphosis Stage

• The study shows that in the metamorphosis stage, all the sea urchins that were grown at a 7.2 pH level failed to metamorphose. The researchers concluded that sea urchins that are exposed to low pH levels throughout their early development stages may find it hard to impossible to achieve metamorphosis. 

• However, the study also shows that 30% of the sea urchin larvae that were grown at a 7.6 pH level achieved the metamorphosis stage. This shows the large impact of even a pH change of .4, compared to the 7.2 pH group of urchins.

Read more: How Ocean Acidification Affects Sea Urchins

Ocean Acidification Affects Brightly-Colored Fish Development Through Continuous Coral Bleaching

The Great Barrier Reef is experiencing massive coral bleaching events due to ocean acidification, which negatively affects the development of fish’s color in the reef. Here’s all you need to know about the study.

• In the span of just three decades, the effects of ocean acidification and global warming have caused the Great Barrier Reef to lose thousands of its coral species. This phenomenon is commonly known as massive coral bleaching events. As a result of this, the number of brightly-colored fish in the Great Barrier Reef is decreasing. 

• According to the study, the number of different types of brightly-colored fish in the Great Barrier Reef has declined significantly since the massive coral bleaching event of 1998. Scientists believe that the composition of the seafloor (texture, colors, patterns) affects the development of the coloration of fish.

• Reef fishes developed coloration to protect themselves from predators by adapting to the different coral structures and compositions. Fish would find it useless to produce vibrant colorations in the absence of coral compositions.

• The study concluded that the loss of vibrant composition and structure of the seafloor due to the massive coral bleaching events has a significant relationship to the inability of many fish to develop their vibrant colors. 

Sources: 

“Direct and latent effects of ocean acidification on the transition of a sea urchin from planktonic larva to benthic juvenile” Nature, April 01, 2022

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-09537-7

“Fish on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef are losing their colour as corals die” Independent UK, March 23, 2022

https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/great-barrier-reef-australia-fish-colour-b2041887.html

The post How Ocean Acidification Affects the Development of Several Marine Species appeared first on Ocean Acidification.

This article will explore how sea urchins are affected by ocean acidification, as well as the importance of sea urchins to ecosystems, global cultures, and the economy.

Background information: Ocean Acidification Infographic

Table of Contents

How Are Sea Urchins Affected by Ocean Acidification?

The Importance of Sea Urchins

The Importance of Sea Urchins to the Ecosystem

The Importance of Sea Urchins to People and the Economy

How Are Sea Urchins Affected by Ocean Acidification?

Sea urchins are vulnerable to ocean acidification because rising acidity in seawater reduces the number of available carbonate ions, which are essential for building sea urchins’ shells, spines, and teeth. Here are some of the negative effects of ocean acidification on sea urchins. 

Lowered Growth Rate of Sea Urchin Larvae

Because larval sea urchins are quite sensitive, ocean acidification affects the development of sea urchins at very early stages. According to a 2022 study, sea urchin larvae’s growth rate is lowered when they’re exposed to acidified water. Sea urchins, when exposed to lower pH seawater, need to use extra energy for other survival functions, including temperature self-regulation, leaving insufficient energy for them to use for their growth.

Increased Metabolism

Sea urchins feed on various types of marine organisms, including algae, planktons, and even kelp. Feeding is crucial to the growth, development, and survival of sea urchins. However, 2013 research discovered that increasing ocean acidity affects the metabolism of sea urchin larvae, forcing them to eat more than normal. A lower pH level reduces the capability of sea urchin larvae’s digestive enzymes, known as “gastric juice.” In order to attempt to make up for less effective digestion, sea urchin larvae exposed to acidification increased their feeding by as much as 33%. If this increased eating was not possible due to a lack of food, the sea urchin would suffer. Additionally, this increased energy devoted to eating reduces energy reserves for other vital functions such as growth and temperature self-regulation.

Increased Developmental Abnormalities and Mortality Rates

Ocean acidification forces sea urchins to reallocate their energy sources in order to adapt. This might sound positive, but experts have found that it is one of the causes of mortalities and abnormalities in sea urchins. In a 2022 experiment, sea urchin larvae were exposed to acidified water with a 7.2 pH level (much lower than the ocean’s current pH of 8.1). This showed a significant effect, causing abnormalities to the sea urchin’s structural development. 

In the same experiment, when larval sea urchins were exposed to acidified water with a pH of 7.2, they were unable to grow into juvenile sea urchins. These abnormalities may threaten their survival rate.

The Importance of Sea Urchins

Sea urchins contribute to the ecological balance in the ocean ecosystem and provide products that are used in traditional cuisines. However, ocean acidification threatens sea urchin populations, and thus, the benefits they offer to ecosystems and people. Here are some of the ways sea urchins are important to ecosystems and people.

The Importance of Sea Urchins to the Ecosystem

Reef Gardeners 

Sea urchins are herbivores and they feed on algae and other marine plants in the reef. Their feeding activities are essential to the balance of the reef because as they remove overgrown weeds and algae, they create room for corals to flourish. This provides more habitat for fish while also preventing the negative effects of overgrowing algae on the reef.

This service that sea urchins provide plays an essential role in maintaining a healthy and habitable marine ecosystem. They are great alternatives to the decreasing population of other algae controllers that are commonly overexploited by people, such as parrotfish and rabbitfish. If ocean acidification continues, the service of sea urchins to reef maintenance could be affected. Without sea urchins and other algae controllers, the reefs as we know them might become uninhabitable for many organisms in the future. 

Source of Food for Other Species

Sea urchins are a food source for several other species. Sea urchins’ high protein provides essential nutrients to animals that rely on this diet. Animal species that feed on sea urchins include:

• Other shellfish, such as crabs and lobsters 
• Multiple fish species, such as sheephead wrasse and wolf eel
• Sea otters
• Seagulls

Some of these animals use sea urchins as their primary source of food, which is why the negative impact of ocean acidification doesn’t only affect sea urchins directly; it can also cause an indirect effect on species that rely on their services. 

The Importance of Sea Urchins to People and the Economy

How Sea Urchins Benefit the Cultural Food Industry and Economy

Like any other commercialized shellfish on the market, sea urchins are also in demand in some countries’ food industry. Here is an overview of some of the countries that use sea urchins as part of their food industry. 

Chile

Chile has a long tradition of eating sea urchins, as sea urchins have been part of Chilean food since the 1500s. Today, sea urchin is still a part of the Chilean diet. In 2002, Chile consumed around 3,000 tons of sea urchins, and in 2013, Chile ranked as the world’s largest supplier of fresh and frozen sea urchins and urchin roe. Sea urchins are not only a part of Chilean tradition and culture, but they also make a significant contribution to Chile’s economy today.

Japan

Eating sea urchins in Japan is traditional, with consumption accounting for around 90% of the global supply. Japan is the largest consumer of sea urchins in the world, where it is commonly eaten as sushi and sashimi, two of Japan’s most iconic dishes. The sea urchin also contributes significantly to Japan’s economy since the country is considered a major exporter of sea urchins globally.

The population of sea urchins may decline as a result of the effects of ocean acidification. This could have a damaging effect not only on the economic contribution of sea urchins, but also on culinary cultures that have been passed down for centuries. 

Health Benefits from Sea Urchin in the Diet

Despite their threatening appearance, sea urchins can provide various health benefits and nutrients to people. Here are some examples: 

• Sea urchins are high in protein, which can help maintain and grow our muscles.
• Sea urchins are also rich in dietary fibers that are good for digestion.
• Sea urchins contain vitamin C and Zinc, which are great for the immune system.
• They also contain vitamin A, which is good for our organs, such as the heart, kidneys, and lungs.
• Just like other fish, sea urchins are rich in omega 3 fatty acids, which are useful for maintaining a healthy heart.

Sea urchins provide a variety of valuable benefits to the environment, wildlife, and humans. Several studies have already proven how the acidifying ocean affects their development, preventing them from thriving. This could alter the important services they provide that help in maintaining ecological balance. This is why it is essential to assure that sea urchins, like all other species, are protected from the damaging consequences of ocean acidification.

The post How Are Sea Urchins Affected by Ocean Acidification? appeared first on Ocean Acidification.

This article will explain how clams are affected by ocean acidification, as well as the importance of clams to ecosystems, people, and the economy.

Background information: Ocean Acidification Infographic

Table of Contents

How Are Clams Affected by Ocean Acidification?

The Importance of Clams

The Importance of Clams to the Ecosystem

The Importance of Clams to People and the Economy

How Are Clams Affected by Ocean Acidification?

Clams and other shell-forming marine species are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification. As rising acidity in seawater reduces the number of carbonate ions, shell-forming organisms like clams don’t have enough carbonate to build their shells. Here are some of the negative effects of ocean acidification on clams.

Thinner Shells 

Hard and healthy clam shells are made from the combination of carbonate ions and calcium ions (both naturally present in seawater). When ocean acidification increases, the amount of available carbonate ions decreases. As a result of ocean acidification, clams have fewer resources to develop or reconstruct their shells, causing them to become thinner over time. According to research, the thickness of clamshells significantly reduces after only 3 months of exposure to acidic seawater.

Smaller Clams

Based on the result of an experiment in 2010, juvenile clams that are exposed to acidic water don’t grow as large. In acidic water, clams have less carbonate to develop their shells, so they adjust to the low availability of their environment by using less carbonate, and thus not growing as large.

Increase in Mortality Rate

The negative effects of ocean acidification on clams don’t stop at the shell’s durability and growth. According to research, clams that are exposed to ocean acidification show an increase in mortality rate after 6 months. If ocean acidification continues to rise, this will pose a serious threat to the ecological balance of marine ecosystems and the people who rely on shellfish – particularly clams, in the aquaculture industry, which covers 38% of production globally.

The Importance of Clams

Clams play an unexpectedly important role in maintaining a healthy ocean ecosystem and provide products that benefit both marine life and people. However, the increasing threat of ocean acidification puts the important services that clams provide at risk. Here are some of the ways clams are important to ecosystems and people.

The Importance of Clams to the Ecosystem

Seawater Filtration

Considered filter feeders, clams filter seawater through their respiration and feeding process. The water flows into the clam through their cilia, and all the particles that are pulled in are trapped by their gills and transferred to their mouth to feed, while the filtered seawater is released back into the ocean. This filter-feeding activity contributes to maintaining the ocean’s water quality.

Here is an example of an experiment conducted by the University of Florida/IFAS that demonstrates the efficiency of clams in water filtration:

Ocean Nitrogen Remover

Clams accumulate nitrogen by filtering water and feeding on phytoplankton, which are rich in nitrogen. When clams are removed from the ocean, nitrogen is also removed. Through shellfish culturing and farming, clams can be utilized in nutrient bioextraction, the removal of nitrogen from the seas. This can help create the right balance of nutrients in the ecosystem. Clam’s nitrogen uptake can also help bodies of water prevent excessive algae growth that often results from too much nitrogen in the water.

Natural Nutrient Cycling 

Clams cycle nutrients within an ecosystem, which help other plants and animals thrive. After digestion, clams distribute nutrients through their nitrogen-rich urine and fecal deposits that fertilize various types of marine plants such as kelp.  Other marine species such as krill, sea urchins, and crabs rely on these nitrogen-fertilized plants for food.

Carbon Sequestration

Clams are also considered a carbon sink because they utilize carbon to produce calcium carbonate to develop their shells. This contributes to the sequestration of dissolved atmospheric CO₂ , which can help take carbon out of the atmosphere. This in turn can help reduce climate change and ocean acidification. 

If the ocean continues to acidify, we might lose a great number of clams and other shellfish populations. Without the services that clams provide, the ocean may face an ecological imbalance that would affect many marine species. 

The Importance of Clams to People and the Economy

How Clams Benefit Aquaculture and the Tourism Industry 

Shellfish farming, including clam farming, is very common in coastal areas. Many people that are living in these areas rely on clams as a main source of income. For example, in 2014, the clam farming sector in Washington County, Maine employed around 640 individuals. Clamming generates many economic advantages, such as clamming-related employment possibilities, the chance to expand tourism through the clam business, and tax revenue to strengthen various programs and services.

Another example of clams’ benefits to the economy is giant clam ecotourism in Samal Island, Philippines. Today, local communities on the island, as well as resort owners, are collaborating to protect giant clam species, which increases tourism and creates new employment opportunities for seniors and women on the island. Clam tourism also generates revenue to improve community programs and services. 

With higher mortality rates, smaller sizes, and poor clam quality, the clam aquaculture and tourism sector as a whole may suffer due to ocean acidification. These negative consequences of ocean acidification on clams may harm people who rely on clams for a living, as well as the local economy that majorly depends on the clam industry.

Health Benefits from Clams in the Diet

Eating clams provides more than great flavor, as clams also provide seafood eaters with various health benefits and nutrients. Here are some examples: 

• Clams are rich in vitamin b12, zinc, and iron, nutrients that are important in boosting the immune system.
• Clams also provide collagen, which is important for our joints, skin, and bones. 
• Clams contain iodine, which is important to thyroid hormone production in our body. 
• Just like any other fish, clams are rich in omega 3 fatty acids. This fatty acid is great for maintaining a healthy heart.
• Clams are a good source of choline. This nutrient is essential for liver protection against diseases such as the fatty liver. A study also suggests that choline could prevent or lower the risk of having Alzheimer’s disease. 
• Clams are rich in selenium, which can increase male fertility. A study found that consuming shellfish like clams improves sperm motility.

However, research has found that clams’ exposure to ocean acidification significantly increased the amount of cobalt that clams absorb. This could be toxic to people who eat clams and may put their health at risk if the cobalt is highly concentrated. This is an indication that if ocean acidification continues, it could negatively impact not only the shellfish industry, but also human health.

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