The vast ocean, often viewed as a boundless resource, is facing a silent threat: acidification. Driven by rising atmospheric carbon dioxide, the ocean’s chemistry is subtly shifting, becoming increasingly acidic. While the consequences for marine life are well-documented, the ripple effects on our economy deserve urgent attention.

In this article, we will delve into the ways ocean acidification affects the economy, focusing on two key economic risks. Additionally, we will discuss potential solutions to mitigate these risks.

Background information: Ocean Acidification at a Glance: Ocean Acidification Infographic

1. Decline in Fisheries

Ocean acidification profoundly impacts fisheries, posing severe risks to food security and economic stability. This section delves into the details:

Shellfish Vulnerability: Acidic waters inhibit the ability of shellfish like oysters, mussels, and clams to build protective shells, leading to a decline in shellfish populations. This not only impacts the seafood industry but also threatens a critical source of protein for millions worldwide. Other seafood species, like salmon, are also impacted.

Coral Reefs at Risk: Coral reefs, vital ecosystems, serve as nurseries for marine species, attracting both tourists and fishermen. As ocean acidification deteriorates coral health, it affects fisheries and the marine food chain as a whole, jeopardizing food security and economic livelihoods.

Marine Food Chain Disruption: Ocean acidification impacts microorganisms at the base of the food chain, which has far-reaching impacts, including cascading effects on fisheries as predator-prey relationships shift and fish populations are affected.

Global Consequences: The economic repercussions ripple across the globe. For instance, the Pacific Northwest of the United States, heavily reliant on shellfish aquaculture, is already experiencing significant financial losses due to declining shellfish yields.

Studies estimate global losses in shellfish harvest could reach $480 million annually by the end of the century.

2. Impacts on Tourism

The tourism sector in coastal regions is susceptible to the pervasive effects of ocean acidification, further undermining economic stability:

Declining Attractiveness: Iconic coastal destinations, known for their pristine waters and vibrant marine life, are losing their appeal as ocean acidification damages coral reefs and disrupts underwater ecosystems.

Revenue Reduction: Tourism-related businesses, including hotels, restaurants, and tour operators, suffer from reduced revenues as visitors seek alternative destinations. This results in job losses and economic hardship in affected communities.

No More Wildlife Tours: Coral reefs, once vibrant and full of life, are now threatened, leading to a reduction in biodiversity-related tours. Tourists are increasingly looking for alternative destinations, leaving a lasting impact on the economic sustainability of coastal regions.

Other Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Economy

While a decline in fisheries and tourism revenue are the two key economic risks posed by ocean acidification, acidification is having other major impacts as well, many of which have economic consequences.

Reduced Food Security

Ocean acidification also has a direct bearing on global food security, particularly for communities heavily dependent on seafood:

Nutrient Disruption: Acidic oceans disrupt nutrient availability for marine life. This can lead to altered marine food webs, affecting the abundance and distribution of fish species that are vital for global food security.

Decreased Harvests: Diminished fisheries due to ocean acidification translate to decreased seafood harvests, which can strain the availability of affordable and nutritious protein sources for vulnerable populations.

Infrastructure Vulnerability

Ocean acidification has indirect consequences for infrastructure, as coastal communities face heightened risks from rising sea levels and extreme weather events:

Coastal Erosion: Weakened coral reefs and the degradation of coastal ecosystems due to ocean acidification contribute to coastal erosion, putting infrastructure such as roads, buildings, and utilities at risk. While less visible, acidified seawater can even corrode coastal infrastructure like docks, piers, and seawalls. This increases maintenance costs and can eventually lead to structural damage, impacting ports, transportation, and coastal communities.

Increased Maintenance Costs: Infrastructure in coastal areas must contend with more frequent and severe damage, increasing maintenance costs for governments and businesses.

Solutions to Economic Effects of Ocean Acidification

Addressing both the direct and indirect economic risks of ocean acidification requires a holistic approach:

Reducing Carbon Emissions: Mitigating the root cause of ocean acidification involves reducing carbon emissions. Transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, and promoting sustainable transportation are key steps. New projects are also working to remove carbon dioxide from the ocean.

Sustainable Practices: Implementing sustainable fishing practices, such as catch limits and protected marine areas, can help preserve fish populations and protect the livelihoods of fishermen.

Coral Reef Restoration: Investing in coral reef restoration efforts can aid in revitalizing tourism and fisheries. This includes coral transplantation and monitoring programs.

Diversification: Coastal communities should explore diversification strategies beyond fisheries and tourism, including aquaculture and alternative livelihoods, to reduce their vulnerability to the impacts of ocean acidification.

Infrastructure Resilience: Governments and communities must invest in resilient infrastructure to withstand the challenges posed by ocean acidification, including sea-level rise and extreme weather events.

Ocean acidification’s far-reaching effects on the economy are undeniable. The decline in fisheries, tourism, and its impact on coastal communities underscore the urgency of addressing this issue.  By reducing carbon emissions and implementing sustainable practices, we can mitigate economic risks, safeguard food security, and protect critical infrastructure, promoting a healthier, more secure global society.

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The Great Barrier Reef, located off the Australian coast, is the largest coral reef ecosystem on the planet and one of the most outstanding world heritage sites. It serves as a vast sanctuary for thousands of marine species, protects surrounding islands from storms, provides food, and generates revenue through ecotourism. But the Great Barrier Reef is now in great danger as it experiences its sixth massive coral bleaching event.

A new report from UNESCO scientists explains that the Great Barrier Reef is suffering from accelerating damages from human-caused climate change. They argue that the area must be listed in the record of world heritage sites as “in danger” because the deterioration is accelerating at an alarming phase, pushing the reef’s health beyond its tipping point. 

In this article, we’ll review the main points of the new UNESCO report on the Great Barrier Reef and explore the global response to the report.

Background Information:  What is Ocean Acidification?

Full Report: Report on the Joint World Heritage Centre/IUCN reactive monitoring mission to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia from 21 to 30 March 2022) (UNESCO, Nov 2022)

Why Is the Great Barrier Reef in Danger? 

Since 2015, the Great Barrier Reef has been experiencing massive coral bleaching events due to increasing ocean temperatures and ocean acidification. In fact, in 2021, scientists discovered that the global population of living corals has declined by 50% since the 1950s. This is due in large part to the ongoing usage of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas around the world. 

Recent UNESCO scientists’ assessments of the Great Barrier Reef found that it is experiencing its sixth massive coral bleaching event, pushing the reef’s damage to an irreversible tipping point.

• During their monitoring, scientists discovered around 750 out of 3,000 reefs within the Great Barrier Reef are suffering from widespread bleaching. That is about 25% of the Great Barrier Reef. 
• James Cook University marine biology professor Jodie Rummer explains that even the healthiest coral may take a decade to recover from bleaching, and with consecutive mass coral bleaching events, we may not see adaptation and recovery as an option for them. 
• Scientists predicted that up to 90% of coral reefs around the world may disappear in the next 20 years due to ocean acidification. The Great Barrier Reef is one of the reef areas most affected by acidification.
• UNESCO scientists’ report argues that the Great Barrier Reef should be added to the list of world heritage sites that are “in danger.” This UN-backed recommendation comes after the World Heritage Committee’s initial recommendation of an “in danger” listing in 2021.
• The report argues that in order to give the Great Barrier Reef a chance to combat the effects of ocean acidification, we must reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reassess carbon credit schemes and increase financial investment in protecting the reef.

What Was the Response to the UNESCO Report?

UNESCO’s push to list the Great Barrier Reef as “in danger” was received with a mixed response.

• UNESCO advised the Australian government to boost its carbon-reduction policies and invest more in water-quality improvement programs. However, the Australian government’s policies continue to fall short of UNESCO’s critical recommendations.
• The Australian government argues that it is unnecessary to list the Great Barrier Reef as “in danger” because they are doing enough to protect the Great Barrier Reef. For example, they cite their recent commitment to invest $1 billion in reef protection programs from 2022 to 2030. 
• While UNESCO acknowledges that listing the Great Barrier Reef as “in danger” could affect its tourism, it may also establish Australia’s name as a world leader in terms of the conservation and protection of a world heritage site.
• UNESCO also emphasized that categorizing the Great Barrier Reef as “in danger” on the world heritage list is essential, as it could encourage other countries to join in conservation efforts to protect it. The World Heritage Committee’s decision whether to label the Great Barrier Reef as “in danger” or not will be based on UNESCO’s assessment. UNESCO is still waiting for Australia to ensure compliance with their provided recommendations. However, the Australian government continues to deny that these recommendations are necessary. 

Sources: 

“Great Barrier Reef should be placed on the ‘in danger’ list, UN-backed report shows” CNN, Nov 29, 2022

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/05/220525182619.htm

“United Nations recommends Great Barrier Reef be added to World Heritage ‘in danger’ list” ABC News, Nov 29, 2022

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-29/united-nations-queensland-great-barrier-reef-danger-report/101705908

“Report on the Joint World Heritage Centre/IUCN reactive monitoring mission to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia from 21 to 30 March 2022)” UNESCO, Nov 2022.

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383823

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Increases in ocean acidity are damaging the first link in the food chain, a microorganism called coccolithophores. This is causing major impacts to marine species that rely on coccolithophores as their primary source of food. 

Recent research from the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona’s Institute of Environmental Science and Technology illustrates how ocean acidification is affecting coccolithophores, and thus, how ocean acidification is affecting the food chain as a whole.

Background Information: What is Ocean Acidification?

Full Study: Nutritional response of a coccolithophore to changing pH and temperature (Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO) Aug 2022).

How Ocean Acidification Decreases the Nutritional Content of Coccolithophores

Coccolithophores, part of the phytoplankton family, are single-celled plant-like marine microorganisms that are commonly found close to the surface of the ocean. Despite their microscopic size, coccolithophores play an important role in the marine food chain by serving as its foundation. Many small marine animals rely on coccolithophores as their primary source of food and energy. Even small fish and other organisms that do eat other things, like worms or small crustaceans, feed on coccolithophores when other sources of food are scarce. Marine animals obtain nutrition and energy from coccolithophores’ fat content, known as lipids. 

Coccolithophores build protective scale-like platings around themselves known as coccoliths (the oval platings shown in the image to the right). These coccoliths are made of limestone (calcite). However, ocean acidification makes it much more difficult for organisms to build calcite shells.

A 2022 study conducted by researchers from the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona’s Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, in collaboration with the Roscoff Marine Station of France, discovered that ocean acidification has significantly reduced coccolithophores’ ability to build shells, and decreased the nutrient content in their bodies. This has massive cascading effects throughout the food chain. Here’s what you need to know about it. 

• The researchers created a simulation of future climate conditions, causing ocean warming and triggering ocean acidification. 
• At first, the coccolithophores showed resilience to the increase of ocean temperatures and acidity. The researchers even observed an increase in their population.
• As the experimental ocean acidity spiked, the researchers found that coccolithophore population growth halted as the organisms began to struggle to build their shells. The acidic conditions caused the coccolithophores’ protective platings (coccoliths) to collapse. While this may seem beneficial to organisms that eat coccolithophores (because this makes them easier to eat and digest), this breakdown of their shells comes with other negative consequences.
• Researchers also discovered that when coccolithophores were exposed to acidified ocean conditions, the nutritional content in their bodies significantly decreased. As acidification worsens, this reduced nutrient content may have a detrimental impact on the food chain.  Marine species that rely on coccolithophores for food, such as smaller fishes and zooplanktons, would be forced to feed on nutritionally deficient food.
• Researchers concluded that as ocean acidification affects coccolithophores’ energy and nutrients, coccolithophores may also seek lower-acidity areas to try and slow ocean acidifications’ effects on their survival. This movement will pose an extra threat to marine species that rely on coccolithophores for food, as some may be unable to “follow” coccolithophores to lower-acidity conditions..

The images below show the comparison of healthy coccolithophores (a) and collapsed coccolithophores due to ocean acidification (b).

Read more: Researchers Discover How Ocean Animals Adapt to Ocean Acidification – But Adaptation Comes at a Price

Sources: 

“Ocean warming and acidification impact marine food web” Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Nov 2022

https://www.uab.cat/web/newsroom/news-detail/ocean-warming-and-acidification-impact-marine-food-web-1345830290613.html?detid=1345875011926

“Ocean warming and acidification impact the marine food web, study finds” Phys Org, Nov 2022

https://phys.org/news/2022-11-ocean-acidification-impact-marine-food.html

“Nutritional response of a coccolithophore to changing pH and temperature” Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO) Aug 2022

https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lno.12204

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As climate change-driven ocean acidification and higher ocean temperatures continue to threaten various marine animals, some species are beginning to evolve in order to adapt to warmer, more acidic conditions. But does this evolution come at a price? A recent experiment from the University of Vermont, in collaboration with the University of Connecticut, the GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research in Germany, and the University of Colorado, Boulder, focuses on this question.

This March 2022 study analyzed how one copepod (a small crustacean species), Acartia tonsa, will likely evolve in order to adapt to warmer ocean temperatures and higher levels of carbon dioxide. However, these copepods’ resilience to climate change comes hand in hand with increased vulnerability to other stresses such as limited food sources.

Background Information: What is Ocean Acidification?

Full Study: Loss of transcriptional plasticity but sustained adaptive capacity after adaptation to global change conditions in a marine copepod (Brennan et al. 2022)

How Copepods Adapt to Ocean Acidification 

Scientists from the University of Vermont conducted a laboratory experiment to understand the effects of ocean acidification on copepods, a group of small crustacean species that serve as a food source for many marine species. Copepods also act as an important biological control agent against mosquitos carrying human diseases.

Researchers artificially evolved 23 generations of Acartia tonsa, a copepod species, in order to study the effects of ocean acidification on copepod reproductive success. The results reveal that copepods can adapt fairly quickly to a warmer, acidified ocean ecosystem, but that this rapid evolution decreases the species’ genetic flexibility, which leads to increased vulnerability to other stresses. 

Finding One: Copepods have the ability to quickly adapt to ocean acidification due to high genetic flexibility.

• Copepods have the ability to become sexually mature and reproduce in just four to six weeks, making them a helpful organism to help scientists study evolution over shorter periods of time.  This study utilizes copepods’ ability to reproduce and create new generations in a short period of time to analyze the effect of ocean acidification and warming on the health and reproductive success of twenty-three generations of copepods.
• Scientists created an ecosystem that simulates future ocean conditions under climate change. They exposed thousands of copepods in multiple generations to the acidic environment and tracked their health and reproductive ability.
• The study found that copepods showed resistance to ocean acidification and continued to thrive throughout twenty-three generations. This is due to copepods’ plasticity (genetic flexibility), or the ability to manipulate their genes, allowing them to adapt to environmental changes. This includes but is not limited to: 
  • Ability to adapt to increasing temperatures in their environment
  • Ability to grow skeletons in an acidified environment 
  • Ability to generate additional energy in order to adapt to the stress caused by ocean acidification.
  • Although the results provide optimism for the future of copepod populations, the next experiment demonstrates the cost of this generational adaptability to copepods’ health and reproduction.

Finding Two: Rapid evolution in order to evolve to ocean acidification decreases copepods’ ability to adapt to other environmental stressors in the future.

• After twenty-three generations of copepods living in an acidified environment, scientists reintroduced some of the copepods in the less acidic environment – the current acidity level of the ocean today. The new generations of copepods that were reintroduced to this less acidic environment did re-adapt to these new conditions – but with lowered ability to respond to other kinds of stressors like a limited food supply.
• The researchers explained that, in an effort to adapt quickly to acidified conditions, the copepods lost genetic flexibility (known as “phenotypic plasticity”), their ability to genetically adapt to different environmental conditions.
• The copepods genetically adapted to high acidity conditions, which left them all with similar genetic makeup. This left them less able to adapt to new stressors, such as a lowered food supply. Copepods in the lower-acidity environment their ancestors had come from had smaller populations and were generally less healthy.

The scientists concluded that, while there is hope for copepods and other ocean animals to adapt to increased ocean acidity and warming ocean, there may be hidden costs for those species as a result of rapid evolution.

Read more: How Ocean Acidification Affects the Development of Several Marine Species

Sources: 

Brennan et al. “Loss of transcriptional plasticity but sustained adaptive capacity after adaptation to global change conditions in a marine copepod.” Nature, March 3, 2022,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28742-6.

“Ocean life may adapt to climate change, but with hidden costs.” Science Daily, March 22, 2022. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/03/220322150905.htm.

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Did you know that the sunscreen you apply doesn’t always stay on your skin? In fact, when we swim (or even shower), the sunscreen you’ve applied throughout the day washes off into waterways and often ends up in the ocean. In fact, around 6000 tons of sunscreen washes off into reef areas every year, according to scientists. That’s equal to the weight of nearly 50 blue whales!

While we depend on sunscreen to protect us from skin damage and disease, many sunscreens actually cause great harm to marine ecosystems. And with 80% of corals in the Caribbean lost in the last 50 years, in part due to pollution, it’s more important now than ever before to ensure we take steps to avoid damaging these important organisms further.

But how exactly does sunscreen damage coral reefs, and what can we do about it? Let’s dive in.

Protection for People, Harm to Marine Life

Researchers estimate that approximately 10%, if not more, of coral reefs around the world are threatened by sunscreen. The areas feeling the brunt of the damage are highly-tourested areas like Hawaii and the Caribbean, where thousands of tourists swim every day, leaving sunscreen behind them. 

So, how is sunscreen killing coral reefs? There are two main types of sunscreen: physical and chemical. Unfortunately, both types of sunscreen can cause harm to coral and other types of marine life.

Physical sunscreen is made of minerals that sit on top of your skin and reflect the sun’s rays. The main minerals used for this purpose are titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, which can wash off into the water. In fact, studies estimate that the average tourists on a Mediterranean beach release 4kg of titanium dioxide in a single day. When these minerals are very small (called “nanoparticles”), they can be absorbed by coral and cause severe damage.

A 2018 study found that zinc oxide nanoparticles cause extreme coral bleaching. This is because the zinc interferes with symbiosis between coral and other organisms, which leads to bleaching over time. Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the ocean may also cause chemical reactions to occur that result in hydrogen peroxide, which bleaches coral.

Chemical sunscreens contain chemicals that absorb into the skin, and then absorb UV rays before they can hit your skin. The active ingredients include “UV filtering” chemicals avobenzone, octinoxate, and oxybenzone. These are extremely potent and toxic to marine animals including coral.

New Research: How Does Sunscreen Harm Coral Reefs?

While scientists have known that oxybenzone damages coral reefs for a while, they did not know exactly how the chemical was causing harm. In May 2022, researchers at Stanford released a study that explored oxybenzone’s effects on sea anemone, an organism that’s closely related to corals. 

The researchers found that when oxybenzone was exposed to light and a sugar found in anemone tissue, not only did it kill the anemone, but the chemical metabolized into another molecule, releasing free radicals that kill coral. Sea anemones exposed to oxybenzone and sunlight died around one-three weeks after exposure.

Finally, preservatives used in sunscreen to help the product last longer can also have toxic effects on both humans and coral. For example, parabens, a class of preservatives, are used in many sunscreens to prevent the growth of bacteria and mold. However, parabens can wash off into the environment, and have been found in a wide variety of organisms all over the world, from fish to marine mammals and birds. Studies show that parabens can disrupt the hormones of a variety of animals, including humans. 

Parabens can also cause viral infections in zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae that live in healthy coral tissue and provide it with nutrients. A 2008 study showed that, because of these viral infections, coral bleaching occurred within a few hours to a few days of exposure to even very small amounts of sunscreen.

Does Sunscreen Harm Other Types of Ecosystems?

It’s not just marine life that’s impacted by sunscreen. When we shower, sunscreen is often washed off into wastewater, which makes its way into fresh bodies of water. However, due to the extreme variety of aquatic ecosystems throughout the world, the specific impacts of sunscreen in aquatic environments are still unknown. 

Many experts are calling for more research into the impacts of sunscreen on non-marine ecosystems. In August 2022, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine published a report calling on the US EPA to conduct further studies into the risks that UV filters cause to aquatic ecosystems (including freshwater). They explain that while we know UV filters have been found in water, sediment and even animal tissue in a variety of ecosystems, we need more information to understand the extent of the impacts they’re having on a variety of aquatic organisms. 

Government attention to the issue of sunscreen killing coral reefs is not limited to scientific data gathering, however. Next, we’ll review how a few governments have taken a stab at protecting coral reefs and other marine organisms from toxic sunscreen ingredients.

Legislation: Bans on Reef-Toxic Sunscreen

In response to concerns about the toxic effects of sunscreen on coral reefs and the intense reduction in living coral reefs, several governments have passed legislation banning sunscreen containing oxybenzone and octinoxate. 

Hawaii was the first state to ban harmful sunscreens with the passage of a bill in 2018 that banned oxybenzone and octinoxate sunscreens. In 2021, the Hawaii State Legislature passed another bill that banned two more harmful chemicals in sunscreen, avobenzone and octocrylene.

Other local and federal governments have also banned harmful sunscreens, including:

• Aruba
• Bonaire
• The U.S. Virgin Islands
• Key West
• Palau

What You Can Do to Protect the Ocean from Harmful Sunscreen

There are a few things you can do to avoid putting more harmful sunscreen into the ocean.

1. Use other forms of sun protection. While sunscreen is, of course, a necessary product to protect ourselves from harmful ultraviolet rays, it should really be a last resort. Instead, use UV-protective clothing like a sun shirt to reduce the amount of sun your skin is exposed to. You can also try and spend time in the shade to protect your skin.

2. Use reef-safe sunscreen. When you do need to use sunscreen, make sure it’s a reef-safe sunscreen. First, avoid spray-on (aerosol) sunscreen, as the spray disperses into the environment much more easily than a cream, and often contains harmful chemicals. Instead, opt for a mineral sunscreen with zinc oxide and titanium dioxide that aren’t nanoparticles (if the packaging doesn’t explicitly say “micro-sized” or “non-nano,” you can be pretty sure it contains harmful nano-sized particles).

To figure out if a sunscreen is truly reef friendly, look at the label. Make sure to avoid these chemicals:

Finally, while sunscreen in the ocean is clearly harming coral reefs, we must also take into consideration the other threats to coral reefs, including overfishing and climate change’s rising temperatures. Changing to a reef-safe sunscreen may make a small dent, but we must curb climate change in order to truly protect coral reefs and other marine life.

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Background Information: How Ocean Acidification Affects Diatoms

Full Study: Decline of diatoms due to ocean acidification (Nature, May 2022).

How Ocean Acidification Reduces Diatom Populations

In past years, scientists believed that diatoms are less affected than other marine organisms by the effects of ocean acidification. This was because diatoms rely on silica minerals to build their shells, rather than calcium carbonate, a substance that many other marine organisms rely on to build their shells and that is reduced by ocean acidification. In fact, some scientists previously argued that ocean acidification aids diatoms by increasing their ability to photosynthesize, and thus increasing diatom populations’ growth.

But, in a recent analysis, scientists explain how ocean acidification may reduce the population of diatoms at an alarming rate. Here’s what you need to know about it. 

The study researched the effects of ocean acidification on the dissolution of the silicon shell of diatoms. The results show that acidified seawater significantly slowed the ability of diatoms to dissolve their silicon shells, ultimately leading to a lowered ability to gain nutrients through photosynthesis.

• The most common negative impact of ocean acidification on shell-forming marine species using calcium carbonates, such as oysters, clams, mussels, and corals, is a reduction in their capacity to form shells due to a lack of carbonate ions in more acidified seawater. While this chemical imbalance was not believed to affect diatoms due to their silicon-based shells, ocean acidification actually threatens diatoms in another way.
• GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel researchers used data from huge test tubes known as Mesocosms. These tubes were placed in different ocean biomes all around the world.  Mesocosms can contain a large volume of ocean water inside, allowing researchers to manipulate the water parameters, such as increasing or decreasing the acidity level without harming the ocean ecosystem outside.
• Using an Earth system model, the researchers utilized the collected data to simulate the negative effects of ocean acidification on diatoms in the future, on a worldwide scale.
• Researchers discovered that acidified seawater slows the ability of diatoms to dissolve their silicon shells, which forces them to sink into the deeper parts of the ocean. Because of this, the abundance of diatoms on the ocean surface is lowered. 
• Researchers concluded that since diatoms needed to be at the surface water to get light to renew their shells, forcing them to sink may significantly decrease their population around the world at an alarming rate.

Read more:

• How Ocean Acidification Affects the Development of Several Marine Species
• Is Ocean Acidification Reversible?
• How Are Whales Affected by Ocean Acidification?

Sources: 

“Decline of diatoms due to ocean acidification. Study shows unexpected negative impact by CO2 on important plankton group” Science Daily, May 25, 2022

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/05/220525182619.htm

“Research reveals ocean acidification is triggering a decline in diatom” UTAS, IMAS, May 31, 2022

https://www.imas.utas.edu.au/news/news-items/research-reveals-ocean-acidification-triggering-decline-in-diatoms#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20reason%20for%20this%20decline,needed%20to%20form%20new%20shells.%E2%80%9D

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1. A recent study shows how sea urchin development is affected by ocean acidification. (more…)

2. The Great Barrier Reef is experiencing massive coral bleaching events due to ocean acidification, which negatively affects the development of brightly-colored fish in the reef. (more…)

Background Information: What is Ocean Acidification?

Full Research: Direct and latent effects of ocean acidification on the transition of a sea urchin from planktonic larva to benthic juvenile, Are fish communities on coral reefs becoming less colorful? 

Study Shows How Ocean Acidification Affects Sea Urchin Early Stage Development

Ocean acidification has a significant negative impact on marine species and ecosystems. A recent study shows how ocean acidification affects the early development stages of some marine species, such as sea urchins. Here’s what you need to know about it.

The study researched the effects of pH on sea urchin’s development and transition from fertilization to juveniles. The result shows that low pH levels significantly affected the growth and mortality of the urchin’s larval stage. Even small changes in ocean pH (on the scale of .1) can have major impacts.

Larval Stage: Effects of Ocean Acidification

• Sea urchin larvae were exposed to a 7.2 pH level (compared to the current ocean’s actual pH of 8.1). The sea urchins exposed to this pH exhibited the following characteristics: 
  • Higher mortality rates.
  • Higher abnormality rates. 
  • Lower growth rates.

• The metabolism of sea urchin larvae exposed to a 7.2 pH level increased as well. The researchers believe that because of this, the urchins may be using additional energy to boost metabolic function, which might limit their growth rates. In other words, the sea urchins adapt to ocean acidification by shifting their energy to boost metabolic function, rather than other important functionalities. Researchers believe that this shift in energy may be what’s causing mortality and abnormalities throughout their development stages.

Settlement Stage

• Researchers discovered that prolonged exposure to a 7.7 pH level significantly delayed the settlement of sea urchin larvae, an important process during which larvae settle to the ocean floor where they will eventually begin their adult life stages. 
• However, when the sea urchin larvae were placed under a suitable algal substrate for the settlement stage, the researchers found that the larvae remained unaffected by 7.7 pH levels. This shows that algae may help reduce the effects of ocean acidification on sea urchin larvae.

Metamorphosis Stage

• The study shows that in the metamorphosis stage, all the sea urchins that were grown at a 7.2 pH level failed to metamorphose. The researchers concluded that sea urchins that are exposed to low pH levels throughout their early development stages may find it hard to impossible to achieve metamorphosis. 

• However, the study also shows that 30% of the sea urchin larvae that were grown at a 7.6 pH level achieved the metamorphosis stage. This shows the large impact of even a pH change of .4, compared to the 7.2 pH group of urchins.

Read more: How Ocean Acidification Affects Sea Urchins

Ocean Acidification Affects Brightly-Colored Fish Development Through Continuous Coral Bleaching

The Great Barrier Reef is experiencing massive coral bleaching events due to ocean acidification, which negatively affects the development of fish’s color in the reef. Here’s all you need to know about the study.

• In the span of just three decades, the effects of ocean acidification and global warming have caused the Great Barrier Reef to lose thousands of its coral species. This phenomenon is commonly known as massive coral bleaching events. As a result of this, the number of brightly-colored fish in the Great Barrier Reef is decreasing. 

• According to the study, the number of different types of brightly-colored fish in the Great Barrier Reef has declined significantly since the massive coral bleaching event of 1998. Scientists believe that the composition of the seafloor (texture, colors, patterns) affects the development of the coloration of fish.

• Reef fishes developed coloration to protect themselves from predators by adapting to the different coral structures and compositions. Fish would find it useless to produce vibrant colorations in the absence of coral compositions.

• The study concluded that the loss of vibrant composition and structure of the seafloor due to the massive coral bleaching events has a significant relationship to the inability of many fish to develop their vibrant colors. 

Sources: 

“Direct and latent effects of ocean acidification on the transition of a sea urchin from planktonic larva to benthic juvenile” Nature, April 01, 2022

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-09537-7

“Fish on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef are losing their colour as corals die” Independent UK, March 23, 2022

https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/great-barrier-reef-australia-fish-colour-b2041887.html

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Ocean acidification is a worldwide problem that, according to experts, requires the same level of attention as plastic pollution and global warming. Here are some of the best quotes about ocean acidification from activists, oceanographers, and authors.

Background Information: Ocean Acidification Infographic

1. “There are ecosystems like coral reefs at risk through ocean acidification. Those are valuable things that we should protect.”

– Bill Gates

Coral reefs are one of the organisms most severely affected by ocean acidification. As acidification increases, coral become unable to build or repair their skeletons due to a lack of calcium. If ocean acidification continues, we may lose the majority of our coral reefs, as well as the important products and services that corals provide to the ecosystem and to our community and economy. Bill Gates, along with many other environmentalists, pushes for solutions to ocean acidification in order to reduce its impacts on fragile ecosystems. In particular, Gates argues in favor of a shift to clean energy in order to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This would reduce climate change and ocean acidification.

Source: “The Bill Gates Interview:  An energy miracle is coming, and it’s going to change the world”, Business Insider, February 2016

2. “Nothing is as daunting as the threats associated with global warming. That’s the biggie. Everyone bangs on about rising sea levels but the real challenge of a warming planet is ocean acidification. An acid ocean spells the end of life on earth.”

– Tim Winton

In this interview with famed Australian author and environmentalist Tim Winton, he argues that the issue of ocean acidification is often overlooked as many people are still unaware of the consequences of ocean acidification. As Winton states, the acidity of our oceans may result in the extinction of all species. This is due to the fact that ocean acidification has the potential to trigger a negative domino effect, resulting in an ecological imbalance that will harm both marine and terrestrial ecosystems and life, transforming our world into a place not applicable for life. 

Source: “Tim Winton Interview,” Surfers Against Sewage, December 2014

3. “As an explorer, I know firsthand there are many places in the ocean so full of life that they should be protected. Coral reefs and mangrove coastlines are stressed already by climate change and ocean acidification, and poor planning will just make their plight worse.”

– Philippe Cousteau Jr.

Philippe Cousteau Jr. is an environmental activist and nature-television host whose work focuses primarily on the ocean. This quote emphasizes the significance of proper planning in minimizing ocean acidification in order to maintain the remaining pristine marine ecosystems. This is why it is critical to develop a comprehensive global solution capable of properly addressing the worsening consequences of climate change and ocean acidification.

Source: “A blueprint for our blue home”, Huffington Post, July 2011

4. “Past, present and future CO₂ emissions will have a cumulative impact on both global warming and ocean acidification. The laws of physics are non-negotiable.”

– Michel Jarraud

Michel Jarraud is a meteorologist and former secretary general of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). In this quote, Jarraud emphasizes that our emissions in the past, present, and future will push forward global warming and ocean acidification. This is due to the fact that ocean acidification and global warming are triggered by an excess of atmospheric carbon in the atmosphere, a result of human greenhouse gas emissions. We cannot address these problems unless we reduce global CO₂ emissions. With his phrase, “the laws of physics are non-negotiable,” Jarraud emphasizes the fact that our only real solution to ocean acidification and climate change is reducing carbon dioxide emissions.

Source:  “Greenhouse gas concentrations hit yet another record,”, World Meteorological Organization Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, September 2014

5. “Global warming is the foreboding thunder in the distance. Ocean acidification is the lightning strike in our front yard, right here, right now.”

– David Horsey

David Horsey is an editorial cartoonist and political commentator for the Los Angeles Times. This quote argues that we have yet to see the worst of global warming’s impacts. On the other hand, we’re already seeing the impacts of ocean acidification. Horsey implies that ocean acidification is a pressing matter that must be addressed urgently.  Additionally, ocean acidification can be seen as a wake-up call, indicating that the consequences of global warming are already harming the ocean today, and will continue to damage the world faster than we may realize.

Source: “Ocean acidification is killing sea life, and we are the culprits,” Los Angeles Times, November 2012

6. “Our biggest challenges for the ocean and for the planet are problems of perception. People need to understand that species extinctions, habitat destruction, ocean acidification, and pollution are all chipping away at the resilience of the thin layer of life that sustains us on Spaceship Earth.”

– Edith Widder

Edith Widder is an oceanographer, marine biologist, and the CEO of the Ocean Research & Conservation Association. This quote emphasizes that our planet suffers as a result of people’s lack of awareness about environmental problems that threaten our existence, such as ocean acidification and pollution. These problems are having a severe impact on the limited natural products and services we receive from the environment, as well as diminishing the capacity of life on Earth to adapt and survive.

Source: ORIGIN Magazine Issue 25, August 2015

7. “With our evolved busy hands and our evolved busy brains, in an extraordinarily short period of time we’ve managed to alter the earth with such geologic-forcing effects that we ourselves are forces of nature. Climate change, ocean acidification, the sixth mass extinction of species.”

– Kate Bernheimer

Kate Bernheimer is an American author focusing on fiction and specifically, fairy tales. This quote describes how human technologies and activities are causing our world to face environmental issues at an alarming rate. We have caused climate change, global warming, and ocean acidification as a result of our carbon emissions and excessive pollution, which might lead to the sixth mass extinction. This quote relates closely to the idea of the anthropocene, or the stage of geologic history in which humans act as a shaping force on the environment.

Source:  Xo Orpheus: Fifty New Myths, September 2013

8. “Ocean Acidification is sometimes referred to as Global Warming’s Equally Evil Twin.”

– Elizabeth Kolbert

Elizabeth Kolbert is a journalist and author of the award-winning book, The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. This quote emphasizes the fact that ocean acidification and global warming have similarly destructive impacts on life on Earth. Both environmental problems are triggered by an excess amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and both may lead to a mass extinction in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Kolbert goes on to say that in the past, ocean chemistry has been a good predictor of mass extinction, and has played a role in mass extinctions throughout the Earth’s history. 

Source: The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History, February 2014

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This article will examine laws related to ocean acidification that have been enacted in countries around the world, as well as how they may help address ocean acidification and its consequences.

Background Information: Ocean Acidification Infographic

Table of Contents

Ocean Acidification Laws, Legislations & Bills Around the World

United States

United Kingdom

New Zealand

European Union

Unified International Policy to Address Ocean Acidification

Ocean Acidification Laws Around the World

There are several laws enacted around the world that work to fix the problem of ocean acidification. While not all of these laws were intended to address ocean acidification specifically, many may still work indirectly to reduce acidification.

United States

• The Clean Air Act  
  • The main goal of this federal law is to regulate sources of air pollution.  It was created by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which sets requirements for all states to provide a strategic plan in order to reduce carbon emissions in order to protect public health and the environment. The law may not be specifically intended to address ocean acidification, but because ocean acidification is caused by an excessive amount of atmospheric carbon, a nationwide reduction in carbon emissions would have a substantial impact on decreasing ocean acidification.

• The Clean Water Act
  • The Clean Water Act is another U.S. federal law that focuses on the regulation and prevention of water pollution, and the improvement of water quality in the nation. Through this act, the EPA enacted requirements for industries that produce wastewater, created several initiatives to combat water pollution, and implemented standards for surface water contaminants. The Clean Water Act also empowers the EPA to combat ocean acidification since it can be regarded as toxic or chemically imbalanced surface water.

• Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act
  • This federal law mandated the establishment of the Interagency Working Group on Ocean Acidification (IWG-OA). The interagency group is embodied by multiple government organizations led by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The primary goal of the IWG-OA is to conduct research that will provide more information and discoveries regarding the effects of ocean acidification. It also covers the identification of conservation and adaptation plans for marine resources and areas of the country affected by ocean acidification.

State of California

• AB 32 and SB 32: Statewide Greenhouse Gas Reduction
  • Assembly Bill No. 32 (signed into law in 2006) required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in order to meet 1990 GHG levels by 2020, while Senate Bill No. 32 (signed into law in 2016) requires the state to cut its GHG emissions to 40% below 1990 levels by 2030. The reduction of emissions will help to lower the amount of atmospheric carbon in the air for the ocean to absorb, thereby reducing ocean acidification. 

• SB 1363 (2016): Ocean Protection Council: Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia Reduction Program 
  • Senate Bill No. 1363 (signed into law in 2016) developed the California Ocean Protection Trust Fund. This fund is meant to support any research and projects that are initiated to tackle the ocean acidification problem. For example, 2021 research on the restoration of eelgrass in California to mitigate ocean acidification occurred due to the support of this bill. 

• AB 2139: Ocean Protection Council: Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia Task Force
  • Assembly Bill No. 2139 (signed into law in 2016) developed a task force that focuses on research about the effects of ocean acidification in order to provide policy recommendations to mitigate ocean acidification.

State of Oregon

• SB 1039 (2017): Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia Action Plan
  • Senate Bill No. 1039 (2017) was created to address the ocean acidification problem in the state. Oregon is impacted by ocean acidification in many ways, including damage to its oyster aquaculture industry. The Oregon Coordinating Council on Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia (OAH Council) was established under this legislation. The main goal of the council is to provide an action plan on how to address ocean acidification and its impact on aquaculture and the environment.  

• SB 1554 (2020): Funding for ocean acidification emergency in the state
  • Senate Bill 1554 (2020) was created to fund the Oregon Ocean Science Trust. This trust works to support initiatives, projects, and research that will help to address the ocean acidification emergency in the state. 

State of Maine

• LD 1679: An Act to Promote Clean Energy Jobs and to Establish the Maine Climate Council
  • The bill, passed into law in 2019, established the Maine Climate Council, which conducts studies to identify different factors that cause climate change, warming ocean temperature, and ocean acidification. The council is required to develop guidelines for addressing these environmental problems and adapting to their consequences. 

United Kingdom 

• Climate Change Act of 2008 
  • The Climate Change Act of 2008 was enacted to address climate change. Under this law, the government is required to create a Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) every 5 years. The assessment covers the UK’s risks and opportunities from the effects of climate change.  The government is also required to establish the National Adaptation Programme (NAP), which creates different projects for the country’s adaptation to climate change. One of these projects is the UK Ocean Acidification Research Programme. 
  • The Climate Change Act of 2008 also requires the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, with the goal of becoming “Net Zero” by 2050. This large-scale emission-reduction plan would significantly help to decrease ocean acidification.

New Zealand

• The Climate Change Response (Zero-Carbon) Amendment Act 2019
  • The Climate Change Response (Zero-Carbon) Amendment Act of 2019 mandated the establishment of the Climate Change Commission. The commission’s principal goal is to provide scientifically-grounded recommendations on climate change mitigation and adaptation. This law also aims to achieve “Net Zero” greenhouse gas emissions in the country by 2050. It is the duty of the Climate Change Commission to monitor the country’s progress towards this goal and ensure that the country is on track. The law may not be directly aimed at addressing ocean acidification, but as mentioned above, reducing carbon emissions is the main method to reduce ocean acidification.

European Union 

• European Climate Law
  • The European Climate Law was enacted to support the objectives of the European Green Deal, which aims to ensure the EU is climate neutral by 2050. It also provides milestones that must be met on the way to achieving climate neutrality in 2050. For example, the European Union is required by this law to reduce 55% of its greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. The European Climate Law will establish methods to monitor progress toward their objective and to guarantee that the target of climate neutrality by 2050 can be met. Although ocean acidification is not the primary focus of the law, it may be addressed by major emission reductions across the European Union.

Unified International Policy to Address Ocean Acidification

There is still no direct united international policy to tackle ocean acidification, despite the fact that many claim that it is as important as the other global problems that need to be addressed. Some argue that the United Nations may use the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to design and develop a unified agreement that specifically addresses ocean acidification.

However, the 2015 Paris Agreement may help reduce carbon emissions, and thus reduce ocean acidification.

• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty designed to address global climate change issues. The treaty’s principal objective is to lower global temperatures by 1.5 to 2 degrees Celsius. The treaty required all participating countries to provide their climate action plans by 2020. In their submitted climate action plans, all of the countries agreed on one thing: they pledged to cut their greenhouse gas emissions in order to accomplish the agreement’s objective. 
• Beginning in 2024, progress will be tracked through an enhanced transparency framework (ETF), where each of the participating countries will have to submit its progress report for validation. 
• While the agreement’s primary goal is to combat climate change in general, ocean acidification may be addressed through the combined greenhouse gas emissions reduction efforts of 192 participating countries and the European Union.

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This article will outline a case study on how ocean acidification affects coral reefs in the Pacific Basin, as well as proposed solutions to prevent further damage.

Background Information: Ocean Acidification Infographic

About the Case Study

This study, Lebrec et al. 2019, was originally published in the journal “Regional Studies in Marine Science.” It discusses the effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs in the Pacific Basin, where mass coral bleaching has occurred. The case study highlights five coral reef ecosystems in the Pacific basin, which are found in the following locations:

• Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan
• Palau
• Hawaii
• Marshall Islands
• American Samoa

The case study evaluates the impact of ocean acidification on the above locations and proposes solutions to prevent ocean acidification and other ocean stressors from causing further damage to coral reefs.

Source: Ocean acidification impacts in select Pacific Basin coral reef ecosystems 

Main Takeaways

Here are the main takeaways from the case study:

1. Ocean acidification negatively affects the coral reefs in the Pacific Basin by reducing the amount of calcium carbonate that is essential to coral reef skeletal development and coral survival. This causes coral reef death.

2. The study highlights the importance of unique coral diversity in each of the five geographic locations, as well as the vital role coral reefs play in local communities and economies.
   1. Hawaiian coral reefs are not just important to the tourism industry, but they also provide direct benefits to the community by sustaining fisheries and pharmaceutical production, which generate income through exportations. Hawaiian coral reefs also provide indirect benefits to the community by protecting coastal areas from storms. The economic value of coral reefs in Hawaii is about $455 million USD.
   2. The Marshall Islands is the world’s most coral reef-dependent country. Most of their needs are met by the reef, including employment, nutrition, exportation, tourism, and protection against natural disasters. 
   3. The Ryukyu Archipelago is home to more than 360 species of corals, which makes it the world’s richest endemic coral reef. The archipelago’s coral reef plays an important role in its economy, generating $4.7 billion USD tourism revenue in a single year. 
   4. Palau is home to around 425 species of coral reef, which makes the country the most biodiverse coral reef in all of Micronesia. It provides 40% of the country’s employment, as over 90% of tourists that visit the island come for diving and snorkeling.
   5. American Samoa is home to about 200 coral reef species, which is why the government established 6 major protected areas for coral reefs across the archipelago. 

3. The locations in the case study are experiencing coral bleaching events due to the combined effects of different disasters, pollution, and ocean acidification. This affects these countries since all of them rely heavily on the services that coral reefs provide. 
   1. Hawaiian coral reefs are bleaching as a result of rising temperatures and ocean acidification, and certain coral reef species are recovering at a slower rate than expected.
   2. Increasing temperatures have bleached over 90% of the coral reefs of Okinawa Island, which is part of the Ryukyu archipelago.
   3. From 1997 to 1998, Palau had a GDP decline of about 3.3% due to intense coral bleaching events. 

Proposed Solutions to Fight Ocean Acidification-Related Bleaching

This case study provides 3 proposed solutions to fight ocean acidification and its damage to the coral reefs in the Pacific basin. 

1. Adaptation promotes the resilience of coral reefs by initiating conservation regulations and the reforestation of coral reefs, and increasing coral reef protected areas. 
2. Mitigation covers the reduction of carbon emissions at the global and local scales. This could be in the form of carbon taxation, an emissions trading system, or a cap-and-trade system. 
3. Capacity Building focuses on promoting local research advancements and spreading education and awareness to the community, generating funds to improve coral reef conservation efforts, and creating local collaborative efforts to promote national policies that push for unified international policies.

Conclusions

This case study highlights the importance of coral reefs in the Pacific Basin and how the countries around it majorly depend on the services that the coral reefs provide. Understanding the impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs in the Pacific basin can help us promote solutions to ensure their benefits to humans and ecosystems remain intact.

This case study is just a part of a much larger global issue of ocean acidification and its negative effects. There are many other countries around the world that are experiencing not only coral reef bleaching but also damage to marine animals and microorganisms that are essential to maintaining the ecological balance of the world. The case study emphasizes the importance of addressing ocean acidification, as if we fail, people all over the world will lose sources of food, income, and culture.

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